Corporate Influence on Our Political System - 2508 Words

Corporate Influence on our Political System Anthony Wade Dr. Donatus Uzomah English 215 June 4, 2011 Corporate Influence on our Political System The American political system is built on simple but revolutionary principles from our founding Fathers. These principles state that self-governance is an absolute right and the governments purpose is to serve the interests of the people. Characteristics which are essential to a healthy, functioning democracy. But America has stumbled upon a formidable roadblock to the realization of our founding fathers dream, as Lincoln said, of a country that is of the people, by the people and for the people( Citizens at Work, 2003). There are many factors that distort this reality and the main†¦show more content†¦Campaign donations and lobbying are other methods used by corporations to influence government officials and policy. A good example, in the election cycle of 2000, there was an estimated $1.2 billion given to congressional campaigns in both parties, by corporations. . Unless you are rich, it is nearly impossible to run a viable congr essional campaign without corporate financial backing, since their donations make up about 75% of the money that candidates receive . In the most recent election, the candidate who raised the most money won 94% of the time (Citizens at Work, 2003). Without corporate money, it is very difficult for politicians to win elections and maintain their office. Once elected, politicians are inundated with constant reminders from lobbyists, of whose money helped elect them. According to the Office of Public Records, in 2009 there were almost 14,000 lobbyists who were supported by $3.5 billion of corporate money (geekacademy.com, 2010). With the combination of lobbyists and political donations, corporations are able to pressure politicians to help frame issues that are more favorable to them. And at the same time, keeping critical issues from being brought before Congress which those corporations are against. Political donations and corporate lobbying have proved to be an excellentShow MoreRe latedThe Mass Media Serves the Interests of the Corporate and Political Elite1031 Words   |  5 PagesThe Mass Media Serves the Interests of the Corporate and Political Elite There exists a symbiotic relationship between corporate America and the United States government. This relationship influences the organizational structure of the mass media and thereby greatly impacts the framing of social problems in our society. The mass media serves the interests of the corporate and political elite by presenting only those issues favorable to their objectives and â€Å"filtering† out those that are notRead MoreThe Merits of Campaign Finance Reform938 Words   |  4 Pagesclass. What began with our forefathers modest experiment in democratic governance, built upon a foundation of informed citizenry selecting candidates who best represented shared values on the relevant issues of the day, has since become slowly distorted by the pernicious influence of corporatized campaign funding. The American political apparatus has traditionally been the arena of the affluent, because like almost every pursuit in this free-enterprise country, political campaigning is a businessRead MoreThe Primary Doctrine Of Corporate Personhood1174 Words   |  5 PagesThe primary doctrine of corporate personhood was introduced in 1886 in the case of Santa Clara v. Southern Pacific Railroad. This case, brought to the Supreme Court, involved the challenging of a California railroad tax, contingent on an insistence of the Fourteenth Amendment and the equal rights protection it includes. Corporate personhood applies to the ability of organizations to be distinguished, by law, as an individual which includes the particular protections, abilities and rights that allRead MorePolitical Issues In Politics805 Words   |  4 PagesI think that there are potential solutions available in the current political climate that I can help with. For example, in the case of the Russian debacle, there is a clear option that the administration can use to reframe the issue. In this circumstance, the Russian problem can be reframed as a problem with lobbying and corporate influe nce on election cycles. Let me explain. In recent news, the media discussed how Facebook ads and similar advertisements were purchased by Russian-connected individualsRead More Democracy and Capitalism Essay1719 Words   |  7 Pages Can we honestly say that the citizens of the United States hold the power when we consider the actual state of the political system? Upon closer examination, it appears that the majority of decisions made in this country are based in the interest of capitalism. From corporate funding for political candidates to the monopoly of ourinformation systems, the current political system in America is deeply rooted in capitalism which has taken power away from the people. Private ownershipRead MoreThe Policy Process1582 Words   |  7 PagesThe Policy Process HCS/455 05/28/13 Jay Littleton The Policy Process In today’s health care system it is constantly improving and changing, due to the demands of the health care system. For this to happen new policies must be created or even improving old policies. Congress is involved in the process of policy making; including three stages such as foundation stage, legislative stage, and implementation stage. When a health care topic is in processRead MoreLobbying and Politics Essay1236 Words   |  5 Pagesdecades, it appears that lobbying and politics have always gone hand and hand on any political stage. Lobbying has always had a strong presence in the legislation system. Lobbying is the process of offering campaign contributions, bribes, or information to policymakers for the purpose of achieving favorable policy outcomes. Conventional wisdom suggests that lobbying is the preferred mean for exerting political influence in rich countries and corruption in poor countries. The legislation is meant toRead MoreThe Federal Election Comm ission ( Fec )1594 Words   |  7 PagesCourt majority argued that restricting independent political spending is the equivalent of disregarding the right to free speech. However, many Democrats and some Republicans believe that the power and sway of corporations have a corrupting influence on American democracy; even if deals aren’t made, the immense concentration of direct contributions from the wealthiest 1 percent of the population gives them an unusual influence over the political system. It is for this reason that almost every DemocratRead MoreThe Democracy Of The United States Government1246 Words   |  5 PagesRandy Rivas Political Science 1 O’Regan Fall 2015 Voter Turnout In a democracy citizens are permitted to have a significant amount of influence on government through the election of government officials. This is known as Direct Democracy, which means that the citizens play a significant role on the laws and policies of the land. Although the liberty of voting is available, why is the voter turnout so low? Many other countries have a much larger vote turnout than the United States. The reason forRead More When Corporations Rule The World Essay1168 Words   |  5 PagesHe sees these once useful institutions turning into instruments of a market tyranny that are destroying livelihoods, displacing people, and feeding on life in an insatiable quest for money. It forces us all to act in ways destructive of our families, communities, our nature, and ourselves. He believes human survival depends on a community-based, people-centered alternative beyond the failed extremist ideologies of communism and capitalism. This alternative is already being created through the initiatives

Hitler s Fall And Defeat Of The World War II - 1343 Words

The Second World War is absolutely understood as one of the most impactful events within the last century. From the horrendous murderous acts of the Holocaust to the unveiling of the atomic bomb on Hiroshima, the war was anything but boring. Every stage of the war proved to be more significant than the previous, and the ultimate end of World War II is what historians tend to focus on even more than all other stages of the war. The fall and defeat of the German Nazi leader, Adolf Hitler, is still under investigation and analysis from almost all academia historians. Hitler’s fall and Germany’s defeat is what is most impactful about the ending of World War II and the reasoning behind its happening. Although the defeat of Germany in World War II can be attributed towards a myriad of reasons, two of the most significant reasons were Hitler’s stubbornness to seize oil to power his army, and the strategic bombing of Germany and German occupied lands by the Allied Forces . Both of these systems can be directly related towards the defeat of Hitler and the victory of the Allied Forces in World War II. Prior to his invasion and betrayal of the USSR, Adolf Hitler relied heavily on Josef Stalin and his oil resources. Specifically in the Azerbaijan city of Baku, oil was a commodity that was worshiped by its townspeople, and was drilled, packaged and sent to the German and Russian forces. Baku was so rich in oil that it would extract almost 25 million tons of oil for the first year of theShow MoreRelatedChristopher Columbus s Influence On The Colonization Of The Americas1330 Words   |  6 PagesChristopher Columbus did not set out on his voyage, intending to discover a new continent and change the course of the world so dramatically; and if he had not played his role in the colonization of the Americas, someone else would have. Likewise, the cascade of events that led to World War I could be blamed on Archduke Ferdinand, his assassin, or even his driver , but the Great War would have erupted even if the assassination had never taken place at all. Sometimes, though, the power and personalityRead MoreThe Most Effective Resistance Against Nazis And The Holocaust?1719 Words   |  7 Pagesor Groups Showed the Most Effective Resistance Against Nazis and the Holocaust? Many events in the world have been documented in our history books, but sometimes forgotten. However, the reminisce of events that took place during the Holocaust are the ones that are never forgotten. Neither should the groups and countries that showed resistance towards Hitler. Because of the antipathy towards Hitler s regime, resistance towards Nazi’s and the Holocaust was a combined effort from many different groupsRead MoreEssay about United States Involvement in The Second World War (WWII)615 Words   |  3 Pages World War II nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;As totalitarian sates emerged into power, the United States got involved with World War II to help control these groups and to promote democracy in the European theatre of the world. The party with the most power at the time was the Nazi Party, led by Adolf Hitler. This socialist party was led by a powerful dictator who broke away from the League of Nations and began to conquer vast amounts of territory at a fast rate. The United States wanted to leaveRead MoreLord Of The Flies By William Golding1271 Words   |  6 Pagesfollowing in his father s footsteps and teaching English and philosophy to unruly boys at Bishop Wordsworth’s School, Golding abandoned his profession to join the Royal Navy and fight in World War II. Golding has said of the war, â€Å"I began to see what people were capable of doing. Anyone who moved through those years without understanding that man produces evil as a bee produces honey, must have been blind or wrong in the headâ⠂¬  (â€Å"William Golding†). Written in the early 1950’s in Salisbury, England,Read MoreWorld War II : The Great War1083 Words   |  5 PagesWorld War II The devastation left by the Great War (aka World War 1) had greatly destabilized Europe, and in many aspects World War II grew out of issues left unresolved by the conflicts of WW1. In particular, political and economic instability in Germany left by the harsh punishments and terms imposed by the Versailles Treaty, fueled the rise to power of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi party. In the years between the first and second world wars there was a time of great instability with aRead MorePrimo Levi s Life During World War II1132 Words   |  5 Pagesand was deported because of this to Auschwitz in 1947 during World War II. He explains his experiences in the excerpt On the Bottom, the whole story being named Survival of Auschwitz. Primo Levi’s experience through the World War II time period lead him to write about what he endured and what others had endured. Primo Levi went to a university called, University of Turin in Italy. There he had been studying chemistry during World War II. However, Italy being a fascist country Levi decided to formRead MoreWeapons of World War II Essay1698 Words   |  7 PagesWeapons of World War II Necessity is the mother of all invention, and so it was taught and learned throughout all of World War 2. During World War 2 weaponry had to be upgraded and revised to fit every situation. The engineers of the war had to constantly develop new and better weaponry. Much like the engineers, the generals and officers were required to develop new ways of outsmarting their enemy. Today most everything is computerized for battle situations, and muchRead MoreThe Reckless Decision Of The Eastern Front1186 Words   |  5 PagesStudy of Hitler’s Fatal Blunder Tiger Sheng Ms. Cameron Modern History 112 October 25, 2014 Adolf Hitler, the Nazi Germany’s leader who started the World War II, had a great plan to conquer every single corner of the world with his powerful army. He actually won a bunch of battles; however several mistakes he made finally led him to the loss. In my opinion, Hitler made his fatal blunder on the Operation Barbarossa, which was the invasion operation on the Soviet Union. The BlitzRead MoreThe War Of World War II1638 Words   |  7 PagesWorld War II was the most widespread war in history and it directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. This war lasted from 1939 to 1945. The war pinned the Axis nations which were Germany, Italy, Japan versus the Allied nations which were led by Britain and its Commonwealth nation, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the United States. The Allies were victorious in the War. It was one of the most significant periods of time in the 20th century. The war resultedRead MoreNazi Germany And The World Wa r II1511 Words   |  7 PagesThe year was 1941 and World War II had been going on for two years since it started in 1939. Nazi Germany had gained much territory and controlled over three-fourths of Europe. The only countries not conquered controlled or allied with Germany in Europe were Sweden, Switzerland, Russia and England. Both Sweden and Switzerland were neutral during the war, so the two biggest threats to Germany was England and Russia. (Patrick Shrier 08/06/2006) On June 22, 1941 the third reich (Nazi Germany) invaded

Theo Georgiades Free Essays

Dramatic irony is a feature of many plays. It occurs when the development of the plot allows the audience to have more insight about what is happening than some of the characters themselves. Iago is the source of much of the dramatic irony in Othello, informing the audience of his intentions. We will write a custom essay sample on Theo Georgiades or any similar topic only for you Order Now Characters may also speak in a dramatically ironic way, saying something that points to events to come without understanding the significance of their words. The opening scene is laced with dramatic irony, all of which centres on Iago. Roderigo fails to see that a man who admits he is a self-serving conman – â€Å"I am not what I am† – might also be fooling him, and Brabantio is unaware of the aptness of his line â€Å"Thou art a villain†. Iago has exposed himself very early and we watch fascinated as he manipulates others. In Act I, Scene III, we almost admire Othello’s â€Å"free and open nature†, as Shakespeare states, but we are worried that Othello is gullible enough to be taken for a ride. His choice to place his wife in Iago’s care is frightening, although it shows his high opinions of him. We are given two menacing hints about the future progress of Othello’s marriage when the senators leave; Brabantio warns Othello against trusting Desdemona, while the first senator tells Othello to â€Å"use Desdemona well†. These lines are examples of dramatic irony; hints to the audience about the way the plot will develop. In Act III, Scene III, Othello is under pressure from the moment he enters. He is able to order his wife, although he seems nervous throughout his dialogue with her at the start of the scene. There is acknowledgment in his line â€Å"I will deny thee nothing†, as we are very well aware that this line is very true. We might feel that Othello is already on the threshold of disaster, even before Iago’s words get to him properly. As Desdemona leaves Othello says â€Å"Excellent wretch [†¦] come again† (see lines III.3.90-2). These lines suggest that Othello will be completely lost if his love is shattered. Note the two words in these lines that hint at the trouble to come: â€Å"perdition† and â€Å"chaos†. The audience will be aware of the dramatic irony of these lines. Also found in Act III; Scene IV is packed with dramatic irony. This sad scene focuses on Desdemona. Emilia’s purpose in this scene is to remark on what she sees and hears. She introduces the subject of Othello’s jealousy, enabling us to value just how much naive confidence Desdemona has in her husband. We quickly learn that we can rely on her judgement; Emilia accurately guesses that it is jealous thoughts which trouble Othello. Emilia is also intelligent in her description of jealousy; â€Å"It is a monster/Begot upon itself, born on itself†. Later on in the play we will see the excellence of these words. Shakespeare fills this scene with examples of alarming dramatic irony, for example Desdemona’s words at lines 25-9 and 30-1. In spite of the fact that she lies to her husband about the loss of the handkerchief, we are likely to feel much sympathy for Desdemona. She does not appreciate the danger she is in, signified by her words at line 30 and is alarmed by her husband’s description of the handkerchief and his repeated requests to see it. Shakespeare’s play Othello is a play where dramatic irony prevails practically everywhere. The audience is not just an observer, but a kind of judge one might say, having enough information to evaluate the significance of certain words stated by characters that are none the wiser; and can therefore sit back and enjoy the art in the villain’s skills aswell the excellence of Shakespeare at play. How to cite Theo Georgiades, Papers

Contracts free essay sample

Classification of Contracts (7 – 1. 30) Simple and formal contracts A formal contract is a written contract (such as a deed). A simple contract can be entirely orally or a combination of oral and written. Bilateral Contract: exchange of promise – one promise for another (a promisee’s promise in return for the promisor’s promise or vice versa) o Union Dominions Trust (Commercial) Ltd v Eagle Aircraft Services Ltd [1968] 1 All ER 104 at 108, Lord Diplock Unilateral Contract: A one way contract. No counter promise, the contract is performed when both parties have performed i. . â€Å" Wanted dog poster† – it is ultimately the exchange of a promise for an act o Australian Woollen Mills Pty Ltd v The Commonwealth (1953) 92 CLR 424 at 456 o Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Co [1892] 2 QB 484 o Mobil Oil Australia Ltd v Lyndel Nominees Pty Ltd (1998) 153 ALR 198 at 222 †¢ Informal (simple contract): Oral  and/or in writing †¢ Formal Contract: In writing, such as a deed. In case of breach, injured party will institute Civil Action (for legal separation) or Criminal Action (for adultery or concubinage) b. from an obligation CONTRACTOBLIGATION ? the cause? the effect However, among 5 Sources of Obligations (1. Law, 2. Contracts, 3. Quasi-contracts, 4. Acts punished by law, 5. Quasi-delicts), the most important are Contracts. There can be an obligation w/o a Contract, but there can be no Contract w/o resultant obligation. c. from an imperfect promise IMPERFECT PROMISE (Policitation) ?an unaccepted offer ?represents the starting point of a Contract d. from a pact PACT ?an incidental part of a Contract which can be separated from principal agreement e. from a stipulation STIPULATION ?an essential and dispositive part of Contract which cannot be separated from principal agreement The Elements of a Contract include the following: 1. ESSENTIAL – are those elements without which there can be no contract. 2. NATURAL – are those elements which are derived from the nature of the contract and ordinarily accompany the same. – they are presumed by the law, although they can be excluded by the contracting parties if they so desire. 3. ACCIDENTAL – are those elements which exist only when the parties expressly provide for them for the purpose of limiting or modifying the normal effects of the contract. Ex. conditions, terms, modes 1. ESSENTIAL – is further subdivided into 3: . 1 common (comunes) – are those which are present in all contracts Ex. consent, object certain, cause 1. 2 special (especiales) – are present only in certain contracts Ex. delivery in real contracts or form in solemn ones 1. 3 extraordinary or peculiar (especialisimos) – are those which are peculiar to a specific-contract Ex. price in a contra ct of sale There are different classes of Contracts. It comprises the following: a. ) According to their relations to other contracts. b. ) According to their perfections. c. ) According to their form. d. ) According to their purpose. e. According to their subject matter. f. ) According to the nature of vinculum which they produce. g. ) According to their cause. h. ) According to the risks involved. i. ) According to their names or norms regulating them. a. )According to their relations to other contracts: (1) Preparatory – those which have for their object the establishment of a condition in law which is necessary as a preliminary step towards the celebration of another subsequent contract. Ex. partnership, agency (2) Principal – those which can subsist independently from other contracts and whose purpose can be fulfilled by themselves. Ex. sale, lease (3) Accessory – those which can exist only as a consequence of, or in relation with, another prior contract. Ex. pledges, mortgage b. )According to their perfections: (1) Consensual – those which are perfected by the mere agreement of the parties. Ex. sale, lease (2) Real – those which require not only the consent of the parties for their perfection, but also the delivery of the object by one party to the other. Ex. commodatum, deposit, pledge c. )According to their form: (1) Common or Informal – those which do not require some particular form. Ex. loan, lease 2) Special or Formal – those which require some particular form. Ex. donation, chattel mortgage d. )According to their purpose: (1) Transfer of ownership Ex. sale (2) Conveyance of use Ex. commodatum (3) Rendition of services Ex. Agency e. )According to their subject matter: (1) Things Ex. sale, deposit, pledge (2) Services Ex. agency, lease of services f. )According to the nat ure of vinculum which they produce: (1) Unilateral – those which give rise to an obligation for only one of the parties. Ex. commodatum, gratuitous deposit (2) Bilateral – those which give rise to reciprocal obligations for both parties. Ex. sale, lease g. )According to their cause: (1) Onerous – those in which each of the parties aspires to procure for himself a benefit through the giving if an equivalent or compensation. Ex. sale (2) Gratuitous – those in which one of the parties proposes to give to the other a benefit without any equivalent or compensation. Ex. Commodatum h. )According to the risks involved: (1) Commutative – those where each of the parties acquires an equivalent of his prestation and such equivalent is pecuniarily appreciable and already determined from the moment of the celebration of the contract. Ex. lease (2) Aleatory – those where each of the parties has to his account the acquisition of an equivalent of his prestation, but such equivalent, although pecuniarily appreciable, is not yet determined, at the moment of the celebration of the contract, since it depends upon the happening of an uncertain event, thus charging the parties with the risk of loss or gain. Ex. Insurance i. )According to their names or norms regulating them: (1) Nominate – those which have their own individuality and are regulated by special provision of law. Ex. sale, lease (2) Innominate – those which lack individuality and are not regulated by special provisions of law. There are different phases or stages in the life or biology of a Contract. The life of a contract has 3 phases or stages: 1. GENERATION ?comprehends the preliminary or preparatory process for the formation of the contract. 2. PERFECTION ?the birth of the contract. 3. CONSUMMATION ?comprehends the fulfillment of the purpose for which the contract was constituted. There are four (4) most essential characteristics of a Contract. The four (4) most essential characteristics of a contract are listed as follows: 1. Obligatory Force or Character of Contracts (obligatoriedad del contrato) – principle that once a contract is perfected, it shall be of obligatory force upon both of the contracting parties. 2. Autonomy of Contracts – principle that the contracting parties are free to enter into a contract and to establish such stipulations, clauses, terms and conditions as they may deem convenient. 3. Mutuality of Contracts – the essential equality of the contracting parties whereby the contract must bind both of them. . Relativity of Contracts (relatividad del contrato) – principle that the contract takes effect only between the parties, their assigns and heirs. Contracts are perfected in the following areas: If the contract is consensual, it is perfected by mere consent. However, if the contract is real, it is perfected by the delivery of the object of the contract by one contracting par ty to the other. REQUISITES OF CONTRACTS (Art. 1318) There are essential requisites of a Contract. There is NO CONTRACT unless ff. requisites concur: 1. Consent of contracting parties 2. Object certain which is subject matter of Contract 3. Cause of obligation which is established CONSENT (Arts. 1319-1346) CONSENT ?signifies the concurrence of the wills of the contracting parties with respect to the object and the cause which shall constitute the contract. ?signifies the meeting of the offer and acceptance upon the thing and the cause which are to constitute the contract. There are different requisites of Consent. Under the Civil Code, in order that there is consent, the following elements must concur: 1. Consent must be manifested by the concurrence of the offer and the acceptance. . Contracting parties must possess the necessary legal capacity. 3. Consent must be intelligent, free, spontaneous and real. Contracts are perfected in different circumstances. In general, contracts are perfected from the moment that there is a manifestation of the concurrence between the offer and the acceptance with respect to the object and the cause which shall constitute the contract . However, if the acceptance is made by letter or telegram, we must distinguish. Manifestation, Expedition, Reception and Cognition Theories are defined below as applied to perfection of Contracts: 1. Manifestation Theory (manifestacion) – contract is perfected from the moment the acceptance is declared or made. 2. Expedition Theory (expedicion) – contract is perfected from the moment the offeree transmits the notification of acceptance to the offeror, as when the letter is placed in the mailbox. 3. Reception Theory (recepcion) – contract is perfected from the moment that the notification of acceptance is in the hand of the offeror in such a manner that he can, under ordinary conditions, procure the knowledge by reason of absence, sickness or some other cause. 4. Cognition Theory (cognicion) – contract is perfected from the moment the acceptance comes to the knowledge of the offeror. Hence, in the Philippines, we have adapted the â€Å"Cognition Theory. † The acceptance by letter or telegram does not bind the offeror except from the time it comes to his knowledge. In the event of death, civil interdiction, insanity or insolvency of either offeror or offeree before acceptance is conveyed, the offer becomes ineffective. The following are incapacitated to give their consent to a contract: 1. Unemancipated minors 2. Insane or demented persons 3. Deaf-mutes who do not know how to write 4. Married women of age in cases specified by law 5. Persons suffering from civil interdiction 6. Incompetents under guardianship The following persons are prohibited from entering into certain contracts: 1. Insolvents before they are discharged by the Insolvency Court. 2. Non-Christians of Mindanao, Sulu, Mountain Province, and Nueva Vizcaya. 3. Husband and wife. 4. Persons who are prohibited from giving each other any donation or advantage. 5. Persons holding a fiduciary relation with respect to certain properties. a. ) Guardian b. ) Agents c. Executors administrators d. ) Public officers employees e. ) Justices, judges, prosecuting attorneys, clerks of superior and inferior courts and other officers and employees connected with the administration of justice, the property and rights in litigation or levied upon on execution before the court within whose jurisdiction or territory they exercise their respective functions f. ) any others spec ially disqualified by law OBJECT (Arts. 1347-1349) OBJECT OF CONTRACT ?defined as the thing, right or service which is the subject matter of the obligation which is created or established. The following requisites must concur in order that a thing, right or service may be the object of the Contracts. As a general rule, all things, rights or services may be the object of contracts. However, it is essential that the following requisites may concur: 1. The object should be within the commerce of men. 2. The object should be real or possible. 3. The object should be licit. 4. The object should be determinate, or at least, possible of determination, as to its kind. There are things, rights or services that can not be the object of Contracts. The following can not be the object of contracts: 1. Things which are outside the commerce of men. 2. Intransmissible rights. 3. Future inheritance except in cases expressly authorized by law. 4. Impossible things or services. 5. Services which are contrary to law, morals, good customs, public order or public policy. 6. Objects which are not determinable as to their kind. Thus, if the parties enter into a contract with respect to the above objects, the contract is void or inexistent. There are exceptions to the rule that no person can enter into a contract with regard to future inheritance. They are: 1. Under Art. 130 of the Code, which allows the future spouses to give or donate to each other in their marriage settlement their future property to take effect upon the death of the donor and to the extent laid down by the provisions of the Civil Code relating to testamentary succession. 2. Under Art. 1080 of the Code, which allows a person to make a partition of his estate among his heirs by an act inter vivos provided that the legitime of the compulsory heirs is not prejudiced. CAUSE (Arts. 1350-1355) CAUSE In general, is the why of the contract or the essential reason which moves the contracting parties to enter into the contract. ?it is the immediate, direct or most proximate reason which explains and justifies the creation of an obligation through the will of the contracting parties. CAUSE ?In particular: 1. ONEROUS CONTRACTS – the cause is understood to be for each contracting party, the prestation or promise of a thing or service by the other. 2. REMUNERATORY CONTRACTS – it is the service or benefit which is remunerated. 3. CONTRACTS OF PURE BENEFICENCE – it is the liberality of the enefactor. In order that the there will be a sufficient cause upon which a contract may be founded, it is essential that the following requisites may concur: 1. The cause should be in existence. 2. The cause should be licit or lawful. 3. The cause should be true. FORMS OF CONTRACTS (Arts. 1356-1358) As a general rule, whatever may be the form in which a contract may have been entered into, according to Art. 1356 of the Civil Code, the general rule is that it shall be obligatory provided all of the essential requisites for its validity are present. There are exceptions to the mentioned rule. These exceptions include: 1. When the law requires that the contract must be in a certain form in order to be valid. 2. When the law requires that the contract must be in a certain form in order to be enforceable. There are various formalities which are merely for the convenience of the parties. The following must appear in a public document: (1) Acts and contracts which have for their object the creation, transmission, modification or extinguishment of real rights over immovable property; sales of real property or of an interest therein a governed by Articles 1403, No. 2, and 1405. 2) The cession, repudiation or renunciation of hereditary rights or of those of the conjugal partnership of gains. (3) The power to administer property, or any other power which has for its object an act appearing or which should appear in a public document, or should prejudice a third person. (4) The cession of actions or rights proceeding from an act appearing in a public document. Hence, all other con tracts where the amount involved exceeds five hundred pesos (Php 500. 00) must appear in writing, even a private one. There are different formalities which are necessary for the validity of contracts: a. Contracts which must appear in writing are as follows: 1. Donation of personal property whose value exceeds five thousand pesos (Php 5,000. 00). 2. Sale of a piece of land or any interest therein by an agent. 3. Antichresis 4. Agreement regarding payment of interest in contracts of loan. b. )Contracts which must appear in a public document re as follows: 1. Donations of immovable property. 2. Partnerships where immovable property or real rights are contributed to the common fund. c. )Contracts which must be registered are as follows: 1. Chattel Mortgages 2. Sales or transfer of large cattle. REFORMATION OF INSTRUMENTS (Arts. 1359-1369) There is a doctrine of reformation of instruments under the Civil Code. When the true intention of the parties to a perfected and valid contract are not expressed in the instrument purporting to embody their agreement, by reason of mistake, fraud, inequitable conduct or incident, one of the parties may ask for the reformation of the instrument so that such true intention may be expressed. In order that there can be a reformation of the instrument, the following requisites must, therefore, concur: 1. There must be a meeting of the minds of the parties. 2. Their true intention is not expressed in the instrument. 3. Such failure to express their true intention is due to mistake, fraud, inequitable conduct or accident. The following instruments can not be reformed: 1. Simple donations 2. Wills 3. Those where the real agreement is void DEFECTIVE CONTRACTS There are 4 classes of defective contracts under the present Civil Code: 1. Rescissible contracts 2. Voidable contracts 3. Unenforceable contracts 4. Void and inexistent contracts RESCISSIBLE CONTRACTS (Arts. 1380-1389) RESCISSIBLE CONTRACT is a contract which is valid because it contains all of the essential requisites prescribed by law, but which is defective because of injury or damage to either of the contracting parties or to third persons, as a consequence of which it may be rescinded by means of a proper action for rescission. RESCISSION ?is a remedy granted by law to the contracting parties, and even to third persons, to sec ure the reparation of damages caused to them by a contract, even if the same should be valid, by means of the restoration of things to their condition prior to the celebration of the contract. The following contracts are rescissible: . Those which are entered into by guardians whenever the wards whom they represent suffer lesion by more than one-fourth of the value of the things which are the object thereof. 2. Those agreed upon in representation of absentees, if the latter suffer the lesion stated in the preceding number. 3. Those undertaken in fraud of creditors when the latter cannot in any other manner collect the claims due them. 4. Those which refer to things under litigation if they have been entered into by the defendant without the knowledge and approval of the litigants or of competent judicial authority. 5. All other contracts specially declared by law to be subject to rescission. 6. Payments made in a state of insolvency for obligations to whose fulfillment the debtor could not be compelled at the time they were effected, are also rescissible. There is a period of prescription for an action to claim the rescission. It includes the following: – As a general rule, the action to claim rescission must be commenced within four (4) years. – If the action is based on lesion, the period must be counted from the time of the termination of the incapacity of the ward from the time the domicile of the absentee is known. If it is based on fraud, the period must be counted from the time of the celebration of the contract. – However, in certain contracts of sale which specially declared by law to be rescissible, the period is six (6) months or even forty (4) days, counted from the day of delivery. VOIDABLE CONTRACTS (Arts. 1390-1402) VOIDABLE CONTRACTS ?are those in which all of the essential elements for validity are present, but the element of consent is vitiated either by lack of legal capacity of one of the contracting parties, or by mistake, violence, intimidation, undue influence or fraud. The following contracts are voidable or annullable, even though there may have been no damage to the contracting parties: 1. Those where one of the parties is incapable of giving consent to a contract. 2. Those where the consent is vitiated by mistake, violence, intimidation, undue influence or fraud. Hence, these contracts are binding, unless they are annulled by a proper action in court. UNENFORCEABLE CONTRACTS (Arts. 1403-1408) UNENFORCEABLE CONTRACTS are those which cannot be enforced by a proper action in court, unless they are ratified, because either they are entered into without or in excess of authority or they do not comply with the Statute of Frauds or both of the contracting parties do not possess the required legal capacity. The following contracts are unenforceable, unless they are ratified: 1. Those entered into in the name of another person by one who has been given no authority or legal representation, or who has acted beyond his powers; 2. Those that do not compl y with the Statute of Frauds as set forth in this number. In the following cases an agreement hereafter made shall be unenforceable by action, unless the same, or some note or memorandum, thereof, be in writing, and subscribed by the party charged, or by his agent; evidence, therefore, of the agreement cannot be received without the writing, or a secondary evidence of its contents: (a) An agreement that by its terms is not to be performed within a year from the making thereof. (b) A special promise to answer for the debt, default, or miscarriage of another. (c) An agreement made in consideration of marriage, other than a mutual promise to marry. d) An agreement for the sale of goods, chattels or things in action, at a price not less than five hundred pesos, unless the buyer accept and receive part of such goods and chattels, or the evidences, or some of them, of such things in action or pay at the time some part of the purchase money; but when a sale is made by auction and entry is made by the auctioneer in his sales book, at the time of th e sale, of the amount and kind of property sold, terms of sale, price, names of the purchasers and person on whose account the sale is made, it is a sufficient memorandum. e) An agreement of the leasing for a longer period than one year, or for the sale of real property or of an interest therein. (f) A representation as to the credit of a third person. VOIDABLE OR INEXISTENT CONTRACTS (Arts. 1409-1422) In General: VOID AND INEXISTENT CONTRACTS ?defined as as those which lack absolutely either in fact or in law one or some of those elements which are essential for its validity. In Particular: VOID CONTRACTS ?are those contracts where all of the requisites prescribed by law for ontracts are present, but the cause, object or purpose is contrary to law, morals, good customs, public order or public policy, or they are prohibited by law, or they are declared by law to be void. INEXISTENT CONTRACTS ?are those contracts which lack absolutely one or some or all of those requisites which are essential for validity. The following contracts are inexistent and void from the beginning: 1. Those whose cause, object or purpose is contrary to law, morals, good customs, public order or public policy; 2. Those which are absolutely simulated or fictitious; 3. Those whose cause or object did not exist at the time of the transaction; 4. Those whose object is outside the commerce of men; 5. Those which contemplate an impossible service; 6. Those where the intention of the parties relative to the principal object of the contract cannot be ascertained; 7. Those expressly prohibited or declared void by law. These contracts cannot be ratified. Neither can the right to set up the defense of illegality be waived. NATURAL OBLIGATIONS NATURAL OBLIGATIONS ?are those based on equity and natural law, which are not enforceable by means of a court action, but which, after voluntary fulfillment by the obligor, authorize the retention by the obligee of what has been delivered or rendered by reason thereof. ESTOPPEL ESTOPPEL ?a condition or state by virtue of which an admission or representation is rendered conclusive upon the person making it, and cannot be denied or disproved as against the person relying thereon. TRUSTS TRUST ?defined as the legal relationship between one (1) person having an equitable ownership over a certain property and another having the legal title thereto. SALES CONTRACT OF SALE ?by the contract of sale of one of the contracting parties obligates himself to transfer the ownership of and to deliver a determinate thing, and the other to pay therefore a price certain in money or its equivalent. The essential requisites of a contract of sale are: 1. Consent of the contracting parties by virtue of which the vendor obligates himself to transfer the ownership of and to deliver a determinate thing, and the vendee obligates himself to pay therefore a price certain in money or its equivalent. 2. Object certain which is the subject matter of the contract. 3. Cause of the obligation which is established. Distinguish between a Contract of sale and a Contract of sell: CONTRACT OF SALE: 1. The title passes to the vendee upon delivery of the thing sold. 2. Non-payment is a negative resolutory condition. . The vendor has lost and can not recover ownership until and unless the contract is resolved or rescinded. CONTRACT OF SELL: 1. By agreement, ownership is reserved in the vendor and is not to pass until full payment of the price. 2. Full payment is a positive suspensive condition. 3. Title remains in the vendor, and when he seeks to eject the vendee because of non-compliance by such vendee with the suspensive condition stipulated, he is enf orcing the contract and not resolving the same. BARTER OR EXCHANGE BARTER (Exchange) defined as a contract by virtue of which one of the parties binds himself to give one (1) thing in consideration of the other’s promise to give another thing. LEASE LEASE ?defined as a consensual, bilateral, onerous and commutative contract by virtue of which one person binds himself to grant temporarily the use of a thing or to render some service to another who undertakes to pay some rent, compensation or price. GENERAL PROVISIONS LEASE OF RURAL AND URBAN LANDS (Arts. 1646-1688) TACIT RENEWAL OF A CONTRACT OF LEASE (tacita reconduccion) refer to the new contract of lease which is impliedly created or established if at the end of the old contract the lease should continue enjoying the thing leased for fifteen (15) days with the acquiescence of the lessor, provided that a notice to the contrary had not been previously given by either party. ?the period of the implied new lease in such case sh all be the legal period established in either Art. 1682 or Art. 1687 of the Civil Code, but the other terms of the original contract shall be revived. There are certain requisites of a tacit renewal Contract of lease. In order that there will be an implied new lease, it is clear from the above that the following requisites must concur: 1. That the contract of lease should have ended. 2. That the lessee should have continued enjoying the thing leased for fifteen (15) days 3. That such continued enjoyment should be with the acquiescence of the lessor. 4. That a notice to the contrary by either party should not have been previously given. 5. That there should have been no express contract entered into by lessor and lessee after the old contract had ended. WORK AND LABOR HOUSEHOLD SERVICE (Arts. 1689-1699) There are certain rules with regard to the duration of a contract for household service as well as with regard to working hours: – No contract for household service shall last for more than two (2) years. However, such contract may be renewed from year to year. – House helpers shall not be required to work more than ten (10) a day. – Every house helper shall be allowed four (4) days vacation each month, with pay. There are rules with regard to dismissal of house helpers: – If the period for household service is fixed neither the head of the family nor the house helper may terminate the contract before the expiration of the term, except for a just cause. – If the house helper is unjustly dismissed, he shall be paid the compensation already earned plus that for fifteen (15) days by way of indemnity. – If the house helper leaves without justifiable reason, he shall forfeit any salary due him and unpaid, for not exceeding fifteen (15) days. If the duration of the household service is not determined either by stipulation or by the nature of the service, the head of the family or the house helper may give notice to put an end to the service relation, according to the following rules: (1) If the compensation is paid by the day, notice may be given on any day that the service shall end at the close of the following day. (2) If the compensation is paid by the week, notice may be given, at the latest on the first business day of the week, that the service shall be terminated at the end of the seventh day from the beginning of the week. 3) If the compensation is paid by the month, notice may be given, at the latest, on the fifth day of the month, that the service shall cease at the end of the month. CONTRACT OF LABOR (Arts. 1700-1712) There is a special nature of a contract of labor which distinguishes it from other contracts: – The relations between capital and labor are not merely contractual. They are so impressed with public interest that labor contracts must yield to the common good. Therefore, such contracts are subject to the special laws on labor unions, collective bargaining, strikes and lockouts, closed shop, wages, working conditions, hours of labor and similar subjects. Scenario 1: Suppose that the death or injury of an employee or laborer is due entirely to the negligence of a fellow worker, can the employer be held liable? – Und er our law, if the death or injury is due entirely to the negligence of a fellow worker, the employer can be held solidarily liable with the latter. Scenario 2: Suppose that it is due entirely to the intentional or malicious act of a fellow worker, can the employer be held liable? However, if the death or injury is due entirely to the intentional or malicious act of such fellow worker, the employer can not be held solidarily liable, unless it should be shown that the latter did not exercise due diligence in the selection and supervision of such fellow worker. CONTRACT FOR A PIECE OF WORK (Arts. 1713-1731) CONTRACT FOR A PIECE OF WORK ?defined as a contract whereby the contractor binds himself to execute a piece of work for the employer, in consideration of a certain price or compensation. Contractor may either employ only his labor or skill, or also furnish the material. MECHANIC’S LIEN ?Refers to the right of retention recognized in Art. 1731 of the Civil Code by virtue of which he who has executed work upon a movable has a right to retain it by way of pledge until he is paid. COMMON CARRIERS (Arts. 1732-1766) COMMON CARRIERS ?are persons, corporations, firms or associations engaged in the business of carrying or transporting passengers or goods or both, by land, water, or air, for compensation, offering their services to the public. In order that a common carrier may be exempted from liability for the loss, destruction, or deterioration of the goods by reason of a natural disaster, the following requisites are necessary: – Common Carriers are responsible for the loss, destruction, or deterioration of the goods, unless the same is due to any of the following causes only: 1. Flood, storm, earthquake, lightning, or other natural disaster or calamity. 2. Act of the public enemy in war, whether international or civil. 3. Act of omission of the shipper or owner of the goods. 4. The character of the goods or defects in the packing or in the containers. 5. Order or act of competent public authority. In order that an agreement between the carrier and the shipper limiting the liability of the former for the loss, destruction, or deterioration of the goods to a degree less than extraordinary diligence shall be valid, the following requisites are necessary: – A stipulation between the common carrier and the shipper or owner limiting the liability of the former for the loss, destruction, or deterioration of the goods to a degree less than extraordinary diligence shall be valid, provided it be: 1. In writing, signed by the shipper or owner. 2. Supported by a valuable consideration other than the service rendered by the common carrier. 3. Reasonable, just and not contrary to public policy. PARTNERSHIP CONTRACT OF PARTNERSHIP ?by the contract of partnership two or more persons bind themselves to contribute money, property, or industry to a common fund, with the intention of dividing the profits among themselves. ?two or more persons may also form a partnership for the exercise of a profession. AGENCY CONTRACT OF AGENCY ?by the contract of agency, a person binds himself to render some service or to do something in representation or on behalf of another, with the consent or authority of the latter. LOAN COMMODATUM ?defined as a contract by virtue of which one of the contracting parties delivers to the other a non-consumable (nonfungible) thing so that the latter may use the same for a certain time and return it. SIMPLE LOAN (mutuum) defined as a contract by virtue of which one of the contracting parties delivers to the other money or any other consumable (fungible) thing subject to the condition that the same amount of the same kind and quality be paid or returned. DEPOSIT DEPOSIT ?is that which is constituted from the moment a person receives a thing belonging to another with the obligation of safely keeping it and of returning the same. There are different classes of Deposits. It may either be: 1. JUDICIAL – when it is constituted by virtue of a court order for the attachment or seizure of property in litigation. 2. EXTRAJUDICIAL – when it is not constituted by virtue of a court order for the attachment or seizure of property in litigation. ALEATORY CONTRACTS ALEATORY CONTRACT ?one of the parties or both reciprocally bind themselves to give or to do something in consideration of what the other shall give or do upon the happening of an event which is uncertain, or which is to occur at an indeterminate time. COMPROMISES AND ARBITRATIONS (Arts. 028-2046) COMPROMISE ?is a contract whereby the parties, by making reciprocal concessions, avoid a litigation or put an end to one already commenced. CONTRACT OF ARBITRATION ?is one whereby two (2) or more persons agree to stand by and accept the decision of another or others with respect to their controversy over respective rights. GUARANTY GUARANTY ?is a contract by virtue of which a person called the â€Å"guarantor,† binds himself to the creditor to fulfill the obligation of the principal debtor in case the latter should fail to do so. SURETYSHIP Is a contract by virtue of which a person binds himself solidarily with the principal debtor to fulfill the obligation. PLEDGE PLEDGE ?defined as an accessory, real and unilateral contract by virtue of which the debtor or a third person delivers to the creditor or to a third person movable property as security for the performance of the principal obligation, upon the fulfillment of which the thing pledged, with all its accessions and accessories, shall be returned to the debtor or the third person. REAL ESTATE MORTGAGE REAL ESTATE MORTGAGE Defined as an accessory contract whereby the debtor guarantees the performance of the principal obligation by subjecting real property or real rights as security in case of non-performance of such obligation within the period agreed upon. ANTICHRESIS ANTICHRESIS ?is a contract by virtue of which the creditor acquir es the right to receive the fruits of an immovable of his debtor, with the obligation to apply them to the payment of the interest, if owing, and thereafter to the principal if his credit. CHATTEL MORTGAGE CHATTEL MORTGAGE by a Chattel Mortgage, personal property is recorded in the Chattel Mortgage Register as a security for the performance of an obligation. Note: ?if the movable, instead of being recorded, is delivered to the creditor or a third person, the contract is a pledge and not a chattel of mortgage. EXTRA-CONTRACTUAL OBLIGATIONS QUASI-CONTRACTS (Arts. 2142-2175) QUASI-CONTRACTS ?defined as those juridical relations arising from lawful, voluntary and unilateral acts of persons based on the principle that no one shall be unjustly enriched or benefited at the expense of another. There are different kinds of quasi-contracts. Quasi-Contracts are either: 1. NOMINATE – there are 2 kind of nominate quasi-contracts regulated by the Civil Code: 1. 1 negotiorum gestio 1. 2 solutio indebiti 2. INNOMINATE – are those regulated by Arts. 2164-2175 of the Civil Code. QUASI-DELICTS (Arts. 2176-2194) QUASI-DELICTS ?defined as the fault or negligence of a person, who, by his act or omission, connected or unconnected with, but/and independent from, any ontractual relation, causes damage to another person. ?defined as an act, whether punishable or not punishable by law, whether criminal or not criminal in character, whether intentional or voluntary or negligent, which result in damage to another. DAMAGES DAMAGES ?defined as a sum of money which the law awards or imposes as pecuniary compensation, recompense, or satisfaction for an injury done or a wrong sustained as a consequence of the breach of some duty or the violation of some right. CONCURRENCE AND PREFERENCE OF CREDITS (Arts. 2236-2251) With reference to specific movable property of the debtor, the following claims or liens shall be preferred: 1. Duties, taxes and fees due thereon to the State or any subdivision thereof. 2. Claims arising from misappropriation, breach of trust, or malfeasance by public officials committed in the performance of their duties, on the movables, money or securities obtained by them. 3. Claims for the unpaid price of movables sold, on said movables, so long as they are in the possession of the debtor, up to the value of the same; and if the movable has been resold by the debtor and the price is still unpaid, the lien may be enforced on the price; this right is not lost by the immobilization of the thing by destination, provided it has not lost its form, substance and identity; neither is the right lost by the sale of the thing together with other property for a lump sum, when the price thereof can be determined proportionally. 4. Credits guaranteed with a pledge so long as the things pledged are in the hands of the creditor, or those guaranteed by a chattel mortgage, upon the things pledged or mortgaged, up to the value thereof. 5. Credits for the making, repair, safekeeping or preservation of personal property, on the movable thus made, repaired, kept or possessed. 6. Claims for laborers wages, on the goods manufactured or the work done. With reference to specific movable property of the debtor, the following claims or liens shall be preferred: 1. For expenses of salvage, upon the goods salvaged. 2. Credits between the landlord and the tenant, arising from the contract of tenancy on shares, on the share of each in the fruits or harvest. 3. Credits for transportation, upon the goods carried, for the price of the contract and incidental expenses, until their delivery and for thirty days thereafter. 4. Credits for lodging and supplies usually furnished to travellers by hotel keepers, on the movables belonging to the guest as long as such movables are in the hotel, but not for money loaned to the guests. 5. Credits for seeds and expenses for cultivation and harvest advanced to the debtor, upon the fruits harvested. 6. Credits for rent for one year, upon the personal property of the lessee existing on the immovable leased and on the fruits of the same, but not on money or instruments of credit. 7. Claims in favor of the depositor if the depositary has wrongfully sold the thing deposited, upon the price of the sale. With reference to specific immovable property and real rights of the debtor, the following claims, mortgages and liens shall be preferred, and shall constitute an encumbrance on the immovable or real right: 1. Taxes due upon the land or building. 2. For the unpaid price of real property sold, upon the immovable sold. 3. Claims of laborers, masons, mechanics and other workmen, as well as of architects, engineers and contractors, engaged in the construction, reconstruction or repair of buildings, canals or other works, upon said buildings, canals or other works. 4. Claims of furnishers of materials used in the construction, reconstruction, or repair of buildings, canals or other works, upon said buildings, canals or other works. 5. Mortgage credits recorded in the Registry of Property, upon the real estate mortgaged. 6. Expenses for the preservation or improvement of real property when the law authorizes reimbursement, upon the immovable preserved or improved. . Credits annotated in the Registry of Property, in virtue of a judicial order, by attachments or executions, upon the property affected, and only as to later credits. 8. Claims of co-heirs for warranty in the partition of an immovable among them, upon the real property thus divided. 9. Claims of donors or real property for pecuniary charges or other conditions imposed upon the donee, upon the immovable donated. 10. Credits of insurers, upon the property insured, for the insurance premium for two years. TRANSITIONAL PROVISIONS There are new provisions and ruled laid down by the New Civil Code which may prejudice or impair vested rights. Hence, do they have retroactive effect? – No, they do not have retroactive effect. – Although the New Civil Code, following a well-established principle of modern legislation, provides that if a right should be declared for the first time in the said Code, it shall be effective at once, even though the act or event which gives rise thereto may have been done or may have occurred under the prior legislation, nevertheless, there is an exception, and that is when said right prejudices or impairs a vested or acquired right. In such case, such right shall be prospective and not retroactive. REPEALING CAUSE The repealing clause of the New Civil Code includes the following: 1. Those parts and provisions of the Civil Code of 1889 which are in force on the date when this new Civil Code becomes effective. 2. The provisions of the Code of Commerce governing sales, partn ership, agency, loan, deposit and guaranty. 3. The provisions of the Code of Civil Procedure on prescription as far as inconsistent with this Code. 4. All laws, Acts parts of Acts, rules of court, executive orders, and administrative regulations which are inconsistent with this Code. Aug. 30, 1950 ?the Spanish Civil Code was repealed by Rep. Act No. 386, otherwise known as the Civil Code of the Philippines. ?the reason for this is that, it was on this date that the New Civil Code became effective.

Introducing The New Notification System Improved Insight Into Your Projects Progress

by Eric Hoppe We’re pleased to announce that starting today you’ll have access to an improved notification system which will allow you to better monitor your custom content projects’ progress. To access it, just visit the Inbox section of your account and click the Notifications tab. You’ll see a Notification Feed of the latest activity on your account. The system adds new notifications to your Notification Feed as they happen, so you can always be sure that you’re up to date on your projects’ progress. Additionally, the system will group together similar notifications that happen within 10 minutes of each other. You can click the + at the end of each entry to expand out the list of items grouped together to see a more detailed view. For example, in the screenshot above 2 of our requests were approved at around 2:44 PM so they were grouped together. Expanding them out, we’re able to see which two requests were approved. You’ll also notice links in the actual notifications, which will take you to relevant sections on the site. For example, when your requests are approved you can click the link to view and edit details of that request. If a writer claims your request, you can click on their name to visit their profile and send them a message. You’ll notice other links that will help you easily navigate to pages you need to visit to act on notifications. New Email Options Along with the new Notification Feed, we’ve also updated our system for sending you notification emails. Previously, you would receive an email for each notification that happened on your account. We’re now providing you with a tool to decide which types of notifications you want to be emailed about, as well as how frequently you want these emails. The different types of notifications you can control are: †¢ Requests being approved †¢ Requests being claimed or unclaimed †¢ New article for my request †¢ My request is expiring soon †¢ New articles in categories I watch †¢ Weekly digest with new articles You’re able set a frequency for each of these, ranging from every hour up to 24 hours after the notification happens. What this means is that your notifications will be delayed by the amount of time you enter, and when we do send them to you, they’ll be bundled together in one email digest. This email digest has a summary of all the different types of events, along with a detailed view if you scroll down. For example, if you set all notifications to 24 hours, you would get an email digest once a day that contained all notifications from your account for that period. If you set it to 1 hour, you’d get an email every hour with the latest activity on your account from that time period. Please note, we will only ever email you if there are new notifications to report. You’ll also notice that you can set the notifications to either Instant or Never. If you select Instant, we will send you an email for every notification of that type as it happens, much like our previous system. If you select Never, we will, as the name implies, never email you about that type of notification. We hope that you’ll find this new feature useful as you work on your custom content projects with your writing teams. Please share any feedback you have in the comments below, or feel free to contact us.

Cómo completar las planillas de Inmigración

Cà ³mo completar las planillas de Inmigracià ³n Las peticiones al Servicio de Inmigracià ³n y Naturalizacià ³n (USCIS, siglas en inglà ©s), se hacen rellenando la planilla correspondiente al beneficio que se solicita. Cà ³mo obtener las planillas de Inmigracià ³n Los formularios para solicitar beneficios migratorios son gratuitos. Casi todos pueden encontrarse en internet en la pgina del USCIS. Adems, las personas que residen en Estados Unidos pueden tambià ©n solicitar por internet en la pgina de USCIS que se les envà ­en por correo ordinario los formularios. Tambià ©n se puede realizar la misma solicitud marcando al 1-800-870-3676. Es requisito saber quà © nà ºmero de formulario es el que precisa. En un plazo de 10 dà ­as se recibir en casa la planilla solicitada. Todos los formularios se pueden rellenar en papel y, algunos, tambià ©n pueden ser completados y/o enviados por internet. 9 tips para rellenar las planillas en papel de Inmigracià ³n Las reglas generales que deben seguirse son las siguientes: Escribir con tinta negra, preferentemente en letras mayà ºsculas y que puedan fcilmente leerse. Para espacio adicional, si para contestar a alguna pregunta de la planilla se necesita ms espacio, tomar una hoja en blanco y seguir con la respuesta. Adems, firmar esa hoja, ponerle fecha, y el nà ºmero de la pregunta que se est respondiendo. En el caso de que se tenga un nà ºmero del alien registration number, deber tambià ©n incluirse en dicha hoja adicional. Cuando una pregunta no aplique, responder N/A y cuando la respuesta correcta sea â€Å"ninguno†, anotar NONE. Pero no dejar en blanco ese espacio. Para adjuntar la documentacià ³n adicional, como pueden ser pasaportes, tarjetas de residencia, certificados de matrimonio, calificaciones escolares o profesionales, etc. Salvo que se especifique otra cosa, es suficiente adjuntar una fotocopia legible de los documentos. Es recomendable leer con detenimiento las instrucciones de cada formulario. Cabe destacar que si no es necesario enviar el original de un documento pero se envà ­a, USCIS no lo regresa. Debe traducirse al inglà ©s todo documentos que està © en otro idioma. En la mayorà ­a de los casos, no es necesario contratar a un traductor jurado, ni obtener la Apostilla de la Haya ni la firma de un notario pà ºblico. Como regla general, es suficiente que la traduccià ³n la realice una persona con buen conocimiento de los dos idiomas y que asà ­ lo certifique siguiendo este modelo de carta. El pago puede hacerse por money order o cheque o tarjeta de dà ©bito o crà ©dito. En este à ºltimo caso, solo si se envà ­a una solicitud a un lockbox de USCIS. En algunos casos, como en la solicitud I-131A de aplicacià ³n de documento para viajar, es posible pagar online. Si se paga mediante money order o cheque, debe ser pagable a U.S. Department of Homeland Security, por una cantidad en dà ³lares y el cheque o la money order debe ser de un banco radicado en Estados Unidos. Es muy importante no utilizar iniciales. Es decir, no escribir cosas como DHS o USCIS.   Precisamente la verificacià ³n de que se ha efectuado el pago es una de las primeras seà ±ales de que la oficina de inmigracià ³n ha recibido la peticià ³n. Si se desea pagar con una tarjeta de crà ©dito o dà ©bito Visa, MasterCard, American Express o Discovery debe completarse el formulario G-1450. Si cuando USCIS intenta cobrar no hay fondos suficientes, se rechazar la solicitud ya que no intentar el cobro una segunda vez. Para pagar con tarjeta de crà ©dito o dà ©bito debe tratarse de una peticià ³n o solicitud enviada a un lockbox de USCIS. Como ejemplo de dichas peticiones destacan I-130 para peticià ³n de familiar, I-485 para ajuste de estatus, N-400 para solicitar la ciudadanà ­a estadounidense por naturalizacià ³n, etc. Todos los documentos deben firmarse, se puede firmar en tinta azul o negra. Pero recordar que el formulario solo se puede completar en tinta de color negra. Bajo ningà ºn concepto utilizar colores tipo verde, rojo, etc., ya que la peticià ³n ser rechazada. Verificar si se califica para no pagar la tarifa  al USCIS. En casos muy especà ­ficos, puede solicitarse a USCIS no pagar por la cuota de una solicitud cuando pueda alegarse problemas econà ³micos y se estn recibiendo beneficios como Medicaid, cupones de alimentos (SNAP), SSI o TANF. Mentir en una planilla para obtener un beneficio migratorio es un fraude de ley que puede tener  consecuencias graves. Planillas que pueden rellenarse electrà ³nicamente El USCIS permite que se completen por internet ciertas planillas en lo que se conoce como e-filing. Entre las planillas que pueden rellenarse electrà ³nicamente destacan el AR-11 para notificar el cambio de domicilio, el I-90 para reemplazar la tarjeta de residencia, el N-400 para solicitar la ciudadanà ­a estadounidense por naturalizacià ³n o el N-600 para la aplicacià ³n de la emisià ³n del Certificado de Ciudadanà ­a. Para completar de este modo las planillas ser necesario crearse previamente una cuenta en la pgina web del USCIS y seguir las instrucciones pertinentes para cada formulario. En estos casos de e-filing, el pago por la solicitud a la que se aplica puede hacerse mediante tarjeta de crà ©dito, dà ©bito o transferencia bancaria desde una cuenta corriente o de ahorro. Al acabar de rellenar el formulario se recibir una confirmacià ³n de que el USCIS ha recibido la aplicacià ³n. En esa confirmacià ³n aparecer una direccià ³n. Debe enviarse a dicha direccià ³n la documentacià ³n adicional que se necesita en los 7 dà ­as siguientes a haber rellenado la solicitud por internet. Estos documentos que deben adjuntarse estn los que prueban la identidad de la persona que realiza la peticià ³n y tambià ©n su derecho al beneficio que solicita. Por ejemplo, copia de la tarjeta de residencia o de un certificado de nacimiento o matrimonio. El tipo de documentacià ³n adicional depende del tipo de solicitud. En general, ser suficiente una fotocopia legible del documento que se solicita y, si algà ºn documento est en un idioma distinto al inglà ©s, enviarlo traducido. Adems hay que incluir como primera pgina la pgina en la que se ha imprimido la confirmacià ³n de haber realizado la peticià ³n por internet –sà ³lo esa hoja, no copias de toda la solicitud. En los casos en los que tambià ©n se deba enviar fotografà ­as en color tipo pasaporte, estas deben reunir los mismos requisitos que las fotos que se piden cuando se solicita una visa o pasaporte. Deben de tener menos de 30 dà ­as y anotar en el reverso con un lpiz el nà ºmero de confirmacià ³n de la solicitud rellenada por internet y, en los casos en los que sea necesario, el nà ºmero que corresponda al alien registration number. Si no se envà ­an estos documentos, es posible que se cancele la peticià ³n. En algunos casos, se recibir una cara de Peticià ³n de Evidencia (RFE, siglas en inglà ©s) pidiendo la documentacià ³n y fijando un plazo para no enviarla. Sin esos documentos no se tramitar la peticià ³n y se perder el dinero ya abonado. Asesorà ­a para completar las planillas de Inmigracià ³n Si se desea obtener un beneficio migratorio es muy importante estar correctamente asesorado con un buen abogado. Si no se puede pagar, existen organizaciones reputadas que brindan ayuda para llenar los formularios migratorios. En el caso de ser mexicano, se puede llamar a un telà ©fono de consulta donde dan buenas referencias sobre donde buscar ayuda para estos casos. Cà ³mo seguir un caso migratorio Una vez que el USCIS recibe la papelerà ­a, la persona interesada tiene a su disposicià ³n distintas  maneras para informarse de cà ³mo va el caso, desde marcando a seguimiento online o a presentarse en una oficina migratoria. Sin embargo, cabe destacar que los formularios tienen un tiempo de tramitacià ³n que depende de su categorà ­a y de la oficina que debe tramitarlo. USCIS no dar ninguna informacià ³n mientras no llega el tiempo de procesamiento porque, sencillamente, no tiene nada de lo que brindar informacià ³n. Puntos Clave: rellenar formularios de USCIS Los formularios de USCIS pueden obtenerse gratuitamente en la pgina oficial del Servicio de Inmigracià ³n.Los formularios pueden ser en papel y, en algunas solicitudes, es posible utilizar el sistema e-filing, es decir, solicitar un beneficio o presentar una peticià ³n por internet.Todos los formularios deben firmarse.Los formularios en papel deben completarse en tinta negra, escribir N/A como respuesta a las preguntas que no aplican y NONE cuando la respuesta sea ninguno.Pueden aà ±adirse hojas en blanco para incorporar ms informacià ³n.Toda la documentacià ³n adjunta debe traducirse al inglà ©s, si estuviera en un idioma distintoEn principio, no debe enviarse documentacià ³n original y es suficiente copia legible.Puede pagarse con money order, cheque o tarjeta de crà ©dito o dà ©bito.Mentir en un formulario de USCIS para obtener un beneficio migratorio es un fraude de ley, el cual tiene consecuencias graves. Este es un artà ­culo informativo. No es asesorà ­a legal para ningà ºn caso concreto.

Lesson Plan for Language Arts on The Great Gatsby for grade 9th Coursework

Lesson Plan for Language Arts on The Great Gatsby for grade 9th - Coursework Example language structure, language conventions (e.g., spelling and punctuation), media techniques, figurative language, and genre to create, critique, and discuss print and non print texts. Students conduct research on issues and interests by generating ideas and questions, and by posing problems. They gather, evaluate, and synthesize data from a variety of sources (e.g., print and nonprint texts, artifacts, people) to communicate their discoveries in ways that suit their purpose and audience. The literature selection should be independent per group but each group member should research on an area in the group’s selected topic. Each group should coordinate with each other to come up with an appropriate topic and determine on the areas to be researched by each student. Students are free to use online resources like journals, eBooks and online articles to research on the decided topic. The institution library can also be used as a source of information for student research. Students should also know the symbols used in the text such as the characters embedded in the novel. The time when the novel was set as well as the meaning of the great Gatsby should also be comprehended. Students are supposed to do a thorough research on the chosen topic with different areas of research to come up with a clear and a complete perspective of an issue. Use all appropriate resources to do the research such as the academic journals on the internet or library materials. After performing individual research on the topic, the students should then discuss the subject from a general point of view in which all students compare and contrast their work. All the research outcomes should address an issue in

Child Verbal Abuse Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Child Verbal Abuse - Research Paper Example When a child is verbally abused, several negative emotional and psychological problems arise, especially at the most critical stages of his development. One of the outcomes is that he is likely to develop interpersonal difficulty which defines a personality disorder characterized with the sense and emotions of doubt, guilt, mistrust and inferiority (Johnson et al. 16). It also entails a distorted way of thinking as well as behaving. For people who were verbally abused as children, they usually suffer from personality disorders as adults. This negative emotional effect caused by verbal abuse can be linked with increased risk of fanatical and irrational behavior from childhood even to his adulthood. Alloy defines negative cognitive style as a characteristic way of attributing the causes of negative life events to stable, internal, and global factors (e.g. I did not pass my exam because I am stupid), inferring negative consequence (e.g. I will never make it in life) and making self-critical judgments of ones character (e.g., I am not worthy), with Beck adding that it also involves having dysfunctional attitudes and maladaptive self-schemas (qtd. in Sachss-Ericsson et al. 72). The child suffers low self-esteem and belittles himself to the point where he does not see his sense of worth. This cognitive style may result to the child getting into depression as he advances into maturity. Besides parents, the teacher is one of the people a child spends most of his time with. As a result of this, there develops a teacher-child relationship which largely influences the child’s social skills, behavior with other children, his academic performance, as well as the emotional aspect. Brendgen et al. say that a child, who has a negative relationship with the teacher instigated by verbal abuse will adversely be affected, with the likelihood of missing out on learning opportunities as well as suffering behavioral

School Administration in Texas Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

School Administration in Texas - Essay Example 3. The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 was passed in order to redesign a number of federal programs which aim at the improvement of both primary and secondary schools. The improvements were made possible by increasing the accountability standards for all schools in Texas. It also provided more flexibility to parents to choose the school that should be attended by their child/children. The act also additionally focused on reading and also Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 was aimed to be re-authorized. According to this Act, all the schools were required to distribute the contact details of each and every student to the military recruiters. The theories of standard-based education reform were enacted according to the act. Those theories were based upon a belief which says that if high expectations and goals were set, then every student would succeed. 4. Totally three kinds of funds comprise to generate funds for the funding for public schools in Texas. The three taxes are local funds, state funds and federal funds. If we consider the fiscal school year 2002-2003, the school funding was comprised of 49 percent from local taxes, 41 percent from state taxes and 10 percent from the federal sources. Based on the differences in the local property wealth and the population of students, these revenues may differ in the percentage. Area III: How the System Works - Expenditures Objectives of Budgeting: The following are some of the important objectives of Budgeting: It aims at providing a yardstick based on which future results can be compared. If any material variances exist against the budget, it is possible for the management to take actions basing upon the establishments of the budget. Direct capital expenditures can be most profitably directed by using budget. Budget is a guide to management decisions when affected by unforeseen conditions. In order to achieve maximum profitability, budgets help to plan and control earnings as well as expenditures. Adequacy in working capital and scarcity in resources can be planned and anticipated by making use of budgeting. Decentralization of responsibility to individual managers is possible. Methods of Budgeting: Different methods of budgeting are used for developing budgets. Affordability Method: In this method of budgeting, the budget is developed depending on the ability to spend. The major disadvantage in this method is that the allocations of funds are always arbitrary as the figure may have a short fall or exceed. Incremental Budgeting: This method is based on a particular department or functions on that of the previous period and is adjusted to inflation by a percentage increase. The advantage of this budget is that it is stable and there is a gradual and planned change. The disadvantage is that is assumes that work activities will remain same and it gives no scope to developing ideas. Zero Based Budgeting: This means, budget starts from a base of zero for each budgeting period. The proposed activities are then assessed and prioritized. Optimum utilization of resources is the primary advantage

A Disorder That Affects The Endocrine System Medical Essay

A Disorder That Affects The Endocrine System Medical Essay The patient chosen to partake in this project is a 54 year old male of Asian origin, diagnosed 8 years ago, at 46 years old suffering from Type II Diabetes. Health Issue Diabetes Mellitus is a disorder that affects the endocrine system, as it is this system that controls and regulates the hormones (chemical messengers) release into their target cells. Therefore, diabetes is caused by irregular levels of insulin in the bloodstream. There are two types of the disease diabetes, type I and type II. Type I diabetes is diabetes that occurs because the beta cells (those that produce insulin), of the pancreas are destroyed. It is known to be an autoimmune disease, initially recognised in patients under the age of 40, however, the disease can develop with age. The only treatment and method of survival for this type of diabetes is to be solely dependent on insulin. Type II diabetes is caused by either insulin deficiency or body resistance to the insulin. As time progresses, extrinsic insulin treatment will be required to ensure the regulation of glucose in the bloodstream. Type II diabetes is most common in older people, especially those people that are obese and are of Asian nationality. In a normal healthy person, when food is eaten it is digested and broken down into molecules of glucose which is absorbed into the bloodstream and into the cells that require it for energy. However to do this, insulin, a chemical messenger produced by the beta cells in the pancreas, is required to act as a key, complementary to the receptors on the plasmalemma of the glucose requiring cells. However, people suffering from diabetes may be producing the insulin required, yet the receptor becomes less responsive to the insulin or resistant to the insulin produced. Additionally, receptor downregulation occurs which is a process whereby, in a patient that eats unhealthily there is extreme levels of glucose in the bloodstream so the body trys to maintain and regulate homeostasis, so in a process of positive feedback, receptor downregulation occurs which increases the amount of glucose in the blood which is toxic. Furthermore, the body may start producing less insulin than required which prevents glucose entering the cells. Therefore, there is an accumulation of glucose in the bloodstream which leads to hyperglycaemia. The main symptoms of the disease are: Fatigue usually occurring because the patient is unable to use the glucose for energy. Polyuria which is passing urine as the body tries to excrete the excess glucose from the body. Nocturia, passing urine at night. Blurry vision or decreased vision. Slow healing of any cuts and wounds. Polydipsia which is increased thirst. Unusual weight loss as the body is unable to use the glucose for energy so the body breaks down the stored fat and proteins instead. Itching, thrush or any urinary tract infections as generally the infection rate will increase as there are high levels of glucose in the blood stream. Walker et al (2002): Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics, page 632 describes that the diagnosis of diabetes should not be based solely on one reading on a prick reading as they should be only used to identify people who may be at risk of diabetes such as screening. Diagnosis is usually established via a venous blood sample verified by thorough lab testing. TALK ABOUT NICE GUIDELINES HERE for blood glucose levels for diagnosis of diabetes Treatments The treatments that are generally used to control blood sugar levels are: Lifestyle changes the patient should be advised to introduce an exercise regime and suitable diet (there is no strict diet for diabetic patients, so patients are advised to eat healthily). However, if this cannot control the blood sugar levels then patients require oral antidiabetic drugs. Oral Antidiabetic Drugs Campbell, Ian (Jun 2007) Oral Antidiabetic Drugs: their properties and recommended use, Prescriber Volume 18 Issue 6 page 58 outlines the use of each antidiabetic drug. First-line Drug Therapy Sulfonylureas Types of Sulfonylureas include gliclazide, glibenclamide, glipizide and glimepiride, which work by stimulating the release of insulin into the bloodstream. As stated in the BNF (March 2010), Sulfonylureas must not be given to obese patients or overweight as these drugs can encourage weight gain. Also there is a very high risk of hypoglycaemia as some Sulfonylureas drugs (glibenclamide) are long acting and should NOT be prescribed to the elderly. Side effects include; nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea and constipation. Biguanide Types of Biguanide include metformin which improves insulin action. BNF (March 2010) describes that Metformin works differently to the Sulfonylureas drugs as it decreases the action of gluconeogenesis, therefore, limiting the amount of glucose being produced by substrates such as amino acids, glycerol etc. Metformin is usually given first priority to people who are overweight, so unlike Sulfonylureas drugs can be given to the elderly. Another benefit of this drug is that it does not lead to hypoglycaemia but has many more side effects including abdominal pain, anorexia and taste disturbance. Second-line Drug Therapy Glitazones (given with biguanides or sulfonylureas drugs as double therapy) Types of glitazones include pioglitazone and rosiglitazone Glitazone drugs work to reduce the insulin resistance and improve the sensitivity to insulin. However, taking these drugs increases the risk of cardiovascular disease and many other side effects including reports of liver toxicity, alopecia, anaemia etc. Prandial glucose regulators Regulators include repaglinide and nateglinide. These second-line therapy drugs can be used as monotherapy or used with metformin. Sexton, John et.al (2006): Pharmaceutical Care made Easy, page 66 describes how these drugs work differently to the Sulfonylureas drugs, by stimulating the increase of insulin using different receptor sites. Side effects of this drug include abdominal pain, diarrhoea, vomiting, constipation and nausea. Insulin There are three types of insulin that can be administered to treat diabetes. Fast-acting insulin is insulin that is said to be neutral because they are soluble, working to reduce the glucose in as little as ten minutes but only work for a few hours so are suitable for patients that require insulin after a meal. Intermediate-acting insulin is insoluble insulin which takes about one to two hours to work effectively. To cover a whole day this insulin has to be injected twice daily. Long-acting insulin is insulin that lasts a whole day and so does not to be administered more than once each day. Diabetic Complications Diabetes MUST be controlled to prevent serious microvascular and macrovascular complications which deter the health of the patient further. Microvascular Diseases Peripheral Neuropathy this is when there is impairment or damage to the nerves, especially on the feet, leading to vibrations and muscle pain, eventually the patient will not be able to feel the feet at all. Nephropathy this is when the kidneys become swollen and larger than normal, because of excess fluid in the kidney and can be discovered by testing on urine for a certain chemical called albumin. If high amounts of this substance are found in the urine, then the patient is suffering from nephropathy which can lead to kidney failure. Retinopathy blindness in diabetic patients is common, therefore, regular screening is undertaken. Control over blood sugar can prevent retinopathy, and if detected early, the eyesight can be recovered by laser eye surgery. Macrovascular Diseases Cardiovascular Disease Walker, John et.al (2002) page 636 discusses that the risk of someone with diabetes having a myocardial infarction is the same as someone without diabetes having a second myocardial infarction. This highlights the importance of controlling diet and advising patients to stop smoking. Peripheral Vascular Disease this is when the blood vessels near the heart or around the heart are affected which increases the risk of suffering from a myocardial infaction or suffering from cardiovascular problems such as hypertension. Microvascular and Macrovascular Diseases Diabetic Foot Ulcers this is the combined result of having many of the diseases above such as neuropathy, peripheral vascular disease and not controlling the amount of glucose levels in the bloodstream. Therefore, this leads to glucose deposits on the toes of the feet which become prone to infection. Therefore, patient education is of utmost importance to prevent ulcers appearing. Social/Psychological Impairment and Management of the disease The patient found coping with the disease very difficult, soon after diagnosis lost his job, unable to cope with the physical requirements and unable to drive the patient felt vulnerable and insecure, lost confidence and a sense of independence. Therefore, the patient fell in depression and financial worries increased .The family also felt that learning to manage the disease was difficult. However, education available provided the information required to deal with diabetic emergencies most common being hypoglycaemia which could lead to coma. Furthermore, the patient suffered from retinopathy which is a microvascular diabetic complications Therefore, in order to correct the patients eyesight the patient had to undergo a few laser treatments. Medicines/Treatments Role of Pharmacist The pharmacists first and most important priority is the patient; hence the pharmacist initially must follow a certain care cycle and criteria to ensure maximum contribution to proper care of the patient. Therefore the patients care began with a broad assessment, gathering the information to identify symptoms, all problems and complaints and potential problems. This was when many of the symptoms of the patient were recognised as diabetic symptoms such as fatigue, passing urine excessively etc. The pharmacists role at this point is to prioritise the patient and to advise and explain to the patient to see the patient as soon as possible. Once the patient was diagnosed the pharmacist was able to think about the outcomes of care and how to achieve the desirable outcomes. To do this, the pharmacist counselled the patient in accordance to the severity of the diabetes. The pharmacist at this point discussed lifestyle changes, such as moderate alcohol intake, maintaining a healthy diet, and introducing a sufficient exercise regime and the variety of antidiabetic drug therapy treatment options. Once the suitable drug therapy was identified for the patient, the pharmacist was able to provide and support the patient, by creating a rapport with the patient, providing and establishing self-confidence and asking questions. The pharmacist also counselled the patient by discussing each and every drug in an Medicines Use and Review (MUR) service which taught the patient how to administer i nsulin properly and effectively, the most common side effects, how to take medication and when to take medication (such as medication that must be taken with a meal or medications to be taken only in the morning etc.), and generally talking about how the patient is coping with the disease. The patient was also advised to join a diabetic clinic so that the patient and patients family could attend to receive important information about how to identify when a person is in a state of hypoglycaemia (eg. tremors, sweating, palpitations, drowsiness), and also giving details on how to avoid serious diabetic complications. In general, the pharmacist has a duty of professional conduct to act in a way to benefit the patient which is publicised in the seven MEP Guidelines (YEAR). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Area for Improvement Reflection

Home Rule :: Essays Papers

Home Rule It all took place between the 1870's and 1920's. Home rule was a huge part of the political life in Ireland, which meant that the Irish Parliament would be restored for most issues, but the British government would still cover many important areas (Conflict 3). The term Government Association started to be used very frequently; Isaac Butt was the gentleman who founded this association. In 1873 this became known as the Home Rule League and in 1874 a general election was held where fifty home rulers were elected to the Home Rule party also known as the Irish Parliamentary Party (Irish 29). Butts' goal was to get both Protestants and Catholics to support Home Rule as a movement targeted towards giving Ireland a federal government within the United Kingdom. Butt was not an aggressive leader and the people of Ireland did not feel he was fulfilling his job completely. A man by the name of Charles Stewart Parnell challenged Butt and became the leader in 1880 (Charles17). The British people began to think that the Home Rule would lead to the separation of Ireland and Britain. Parnell realized that the people did not like the British Rule and this is what caused them to support Irish nationalism. In 1880 Parnell won the support of the Fenians and the Irish Republican brotherhood that wanted total separation but were willing to compromise and accept Home Rule. In 1881 the second Land Act gave the "Three F's" which the Land League had demanded. Fair rents would be fixed by judges appointed by the government, fixed tenancies would have to be agreed between tenants and landowners (avoiding evictions), and free sale of his lease would be permitted to a tenant who wished to give up farming. Gladstone and most of the Liberal Party conversed to the Home Rule cause in 1885, and this is when the conservative party opposed Home Rule and threatened some kind of defense on the United Kingdom (Gladstone 6).

Hiv Prevention Strategy In Nigeria Health And Social Care Essay

Nigeria ‘s population of 140 million is the largest in Africa with 1 in 6 Africans being Nigerian. The information from the 2005 HIV study indicates that approximately 4.4 % of Nigerians are infected with HIV. The prevalence exhibits province broad disparity of between 1.6 % in Ekiti province ( south West ) and 10 % in Benue province ( north cardinal ) . ( Figure 1 ; NACA, 2007 ) While the infection rate is slower than some other African states, issues about HIV are still high on the docket because of the states high population. ( Figure 2 ; Jennifer Kates, Alyssa Wilson Leggoe, 2005 ) The Antenatal information shows that immature grownups appear most affected with 3.6 % amongst pregnant 15-19 twelvemonth olds and 4.7 % amongst 20-24 twelvemonth olds ( Figure 3 ; Technical Report National HIV/Syphilis Sero-Prevalence Sentinel Survey, 2005 ) This fact highlights the demand for a good co-ordinated National HIV/AIDS bar plan to farther decelerate down the infection rate and cut do wn incidence. ( NACA, 2007 ) Figure 1: HIV Prevalence by State ( 2005 ) www.naca.gov.ng Figure2 a ) Percentage of Adults estimated to be populating with HIV/AIDS and B ) Number of People estimated to be populating with HIV/AIDS. Beginning: HIV/AIDS Fact sheet, 2005 Figure 3: HIV Prevalence by Age group ( Old ages ) 2005 www.naca.gov.ng Drivers of the HIV Epidemic in Nigeria Informal Transactional Sexual activity: While commercial sex workers ( CSWs ) have long been identified as critical in impacting the spread of the HIV/AIDS epidemic rubber usage among them is high. A cardinal driver nevertheless is informal commercial sex among the general population ( J. Robinson, 2008 ; NACA, 2007 ) Low Risk Percept: 67 % of Nigerians perceive themselves to be at no hazard of undertaking HIV while 29 % perceive themselves to be at low hazard and merely 2 % rated their opportunities of infection high ( NARHS, 2005 ; NACA, 2007 ) Multiple Partnerships: In Nigeria, spiritual beliefs tend to back up the publicity of common fidelity ; NDHS ( 2003 ) nevertheless proved that multiple sexual partnerships are common particularly amongst sexually active work forces. About 30 % and 24 % single and married work forces severally reported holding more than one sexual spouse in the past twelvemonth ( NDHS 2003, NACA 2007 ) . While work forces with multiple spouses have a 60 % increased hazard, adult females are 10 % higher than work forces. ( NARHS, 2005 ) Lack of established STD Programming for Most at Risk Population ( MARP ) : Package of services provided to MARPs is limited. Linkages to HIV guidance and testing, STD direction and intervention are weak and have relied chiefly on referrals. Continuing Risky Behaviour of males in General Population: Hazardous behavior in the general population is more prevailing among work forces than adult females. 26 % of work forces report holding more than one sex spouse in the last twelvemonth as against 2 % in adult females. ( NARHS, 2005 ) Gender Inequalities: Underliing causes and effects of HIV/AIDS infections in work forces and adult females varies reflecting differences in biological science, sexual behavior, societal attitudes, economic power, exposure, and cultural attitudes that discourages safe sex dialogue. ( NACA, 2007 ) Economic Drivers: HIV impoverishes persons and communities through losingss of human resources. Poverty brings about low degrees of instruction associated with illiteracy and by and large hapless wellness position. These conditions result in hapless acceptance of behavior alteration which exposes the population to HIV infection. ( NACA, 2007 ) Equally shortly as an epidemic of HIV/AIDS was noticed in the state, Nigeria mounted a national response, which was expanded in 2000 with the constitution of the Presidential Council on AIDS ( PCA ) and the National Agency for the control of AIDS ( NACA ) . This allowed for a co-ordinated attempt to supply bar, intervention, attention and support services through policy preparation, development of programs and execution. NACA ‘s authorization provinces that: -A A 1.A A A Coordinate and prolong protagonism by all sectors and at all degrees for HIV/AIDS/STD expanded responses in Nigeria.A 2.A A A Develop the model for coaction and support from all stakeholders for a multi-sector and multi-disciplinary response to HIV/AIDS in Nigeria. 3.A A A Develop and present to the PCA, all programs on HIV/AIDS in Nigeria for policy determinations. 4.A A A Develop and joint a strategic program for an Expanded National Response to HIV/AIDS in Nigeria.A 5.A A A Coordinate, proctor and measure the execution of the Strategic National Plan for the control of HIV/AIDS/STDs in Nigeria and all other approved policies.A 6.A A A Coordinate and ease the mobilisation of resources for an effectual and sustainable response to HIV/AIDS/STDs in Nigeria.A 7.A A A Undertake any other responsibilities as assigned by the PCA from clip to clip. ( NACA, 2007 ) The National HIV/AIDS Strategic Framework for Action ( 2005-2009 ) provides a strong and comprehensive model for bar attempts including a balanced â€Å" ABC † attack. In this model, in-school young persons were marked as a mark population group. Sexual activity instruction is a major constituent of bar and one of the tools in minimal bundle required for HIV bar. Political issues environing it include Resistance to arouse instruction and rubber publicity by Faith Based Organizations ( FBO ) , Religious leaders and other stakeholders Inadequate accomplishments on rubber usage and dialogue Misconception about sex instruction and low credence Availability, handiness and affordability Lack of policy environing sexual instruction in secondary schools ( NACA, 2007 ) A survey done in Nigeria analyzing the sexual behavior of secondary school striplings showed that the average age at first intercourse was 12 old ages with a scope of 6-19 old ages ; many of the participants had multiple sexual spouses and a hapless perceptual experience of the hazard of STD including HIV. It was recommended that a structured sexual instruction course of study be instituted for all schools get downing at an early age. ( A.T. Owolabi, A.A. Onayade et Al, 2005 ) Other surveies have examined how instructors feel about go throughing their cognition on HIV / AIDS bar steps to their pupils in the context of their cultural and societal norms that restrict unfastened treatment of sex.A The consequences showed a high degree of cognition about HIV / AIDS bar among teachers.A Nevertheless, instructors do non go through on this cognition because of cultural and societal taboos.A In add-on, instructors do non have proper preparation and motive on information, instruction and communicating on HIV / AIDS and sex instruction. ( Daniel C. Oshi et Al, 2005 ) It is hence necessary to increase handiness of sexual wellness services, create societal support for sex instruction in schools and build capacity on appropriate sex instruction. Previous efforts at supplying sex instruction were interfered by spiritual and cultural resistance. In 2000 a new course of study was introduced for comprehensive sex instruction for 10-18 twelvemonth olds which concentrated on bettering pupil ‘s cognition and attitudes to sexual wellness and cut downing hazardous sexual behavior. However the execution of the undertaking was a entire failure and has since been abandoned. ( Avert, 2010 ) In a state where issues such as confidentiality around HIV proving is non covered by statute law, where no action is taken when human rights are broken in relation to HIV infection and stigmatisation. It seems the destiny of the immature people are in their custodies, owing to the absence of generative wellness ( RH ) institutes and deficiency of separate Torahs or statute law for immature people in relation to HIV bar. ( United Nations Global Coalition on Women and AIDS, 2004 )POLICY AGENDA SettingTo accomplish this wellness policy, one must see the histrions that would be involved and analyze all stakeholders- so as to understand their behavior, purposes, inter-relations and involvements: and to measure the influence and resources they bring to bear on decision-making or execution procedure. ( Varvasovszky Z. , Brugha R. 2000 ) Stakeholder/ Actor analysis will place the type of people to interview, utilizing sweet sand verbena techniques, reappraisal questionnaires etc. It is of import to plan a semi-structured/ condense interview inquiries. Interviews will let comparison across cultural groups and faith ; and yet be sensitive to specific contexts. Stake holder ‘s position has to be transformed into one that utilizes indexs to exemplify the extent of the job. They need to be informed of graduated table, tendencies and likely future class of HIV epidemic in their part or territory and within specific subgroups of the population. Table 1: Stakeholders AnalysisStakeholdersEngagement in the issueInterest in the issueInfluence/ PowerPositionImpact of issue on histrionParents Participate in Child Sexual Education and can act upon their kids ‘s determination Medium Low Non-mobilized High Media Industry Promote stakeholder ‘s positions and can act upon determination shapers by supplying dependable information High High Supportive Low Ministry of Health Promote healthy generative picks, direction of STIs and HIV related unwellnesss High Medium Supportive High Presidential Council on AIDS Survey policy proposals and do determinations on them Medium High Non-mobilized Medium School Administration Participate in policy Execution High Medium Opposed High Ministry of Education Ensure sex instruction is integrated in national course of study and implemented Training of staff Policy Implementation and Evaluation High High Supportive High Bilateral Organizations Provide support and proficient support High High Supportive High Religious Leaderships Influence the population through spiritual, moral and cultural beliefs High High Opposed Medium Importers, Manufacturers and Sellers of the merchandise e.g. rubbers, text editions Provide low-cost and high quality merchandise Engagement in distribution High Low Supportive High NACA Develop and present to PCA all programs on HIV/AIDS in Nigeria for policy determinations High High Supportive High Documentary/ Content analysis would be undertaken to place the grade of consistence between the present policies in the state. It would besides cover how far policy shapers draw on research findings in addresss during policy preparation and execution phases. The information beginnings would include research publications and studies, statute law, administrative/executive ordinances or orders, reimbursement agreements, guidelines and advice, meeting studies and proceedingss, policy statements, addresss, and articles. An economic rating will be considered to measure and construe the value of this wellness intercession. This will mensurate the results in pecuniary footings every bit good as in wellness units. For this policy a cost effectivity analysis ( CEA ) will be more good in order to besiege the quandary of puting pecuniary value on human lives. It will compare the value of resources spent on the intercession to the measure of wellness gained as a consequence. ( David Wonderling et Al, 2005 ) A thorough apprehension of consistence of old policies with research findings, the grade of influence of research on policy docket scene, preparation and execution would be needed to guarantee a high degree of wellness research use in the determination devising of this wellness policy. CLARITY OF MESSAGE HIV bar, peculiarly sex instruction demands strong grounds in order to be recommended for consideration and broad spread execution. Hall ‘s theoretical account of docket puting claims that the strength of this grounds depends on the issue ‘s Legitimacy, Feasibility and Support. ( Kent Buse, 2005 ) The issue at manus is legitimate as the HIV epidemic continues to harry the state, heterosexual sex being the most reported signifier of transmittal and high rate among immature people. It is executable since the policy will be implemented logistically through already bing systems, cost and resources will hence be reduced. Support can be generated through act uponing the population with the usage of media, raising consciousness and advancing rubber usage, affecting FBOs in policy execution. There is besides no grounds that sex instruction or rubber handiness in schools will increase promiscuousness or cut down the age of first sexual intercourse of in school young person, hence this policy has no potency for inauspicious consequence. This policy ‘s acceptableness might be of concern, as there will be resistance from spiritual leaders and other involvement groups. This policy besides has other societal and wellness benefits, as the usage of rubbers will besides cut down other STIs, cut down unwanted gestations and the complications from illegal abortions, thereby cut downing maternal mortality. Previous work in Nigeria has shown that equal instruction works in HIV bar and this is soon being used to advance abstention and be faithful intercession plans. Kingdom ‘s Model proposes that there are 3 watercourses of policy procedure and they need to cross for policies to be considered. ( Kent Buse, 2005 ) Problem watercourse: High prevalence of HIV among in school young person, with the highest signifier of transmittal being heterosexual sex Politicss watercourse: The National HIV bar work program promotes condom scheduling and there have been ongoing arguments around this issue. In 2000, sex instruction was integrated into National course of study but was ne'er implemented. Meanwhile the prevalence amongst in school young person since so has increased. Policy watercourse: Following the 2005 National HIV/Syphilis Sero prevalence lookout study for pregnant adult females go toing Ante-natal clinics in Nigeria. NACA has mounted more response to HIV bar. More support for HIV bar is being provided by bilateral organisations and NACA has become unfastened to execution of policies through FBOs and CSOs. Interventions are now being chosen and funded based on scientific grounds research.POLICY FORMULATION AND IMPLEMENTATIONLegislators are influenced by media and runs, cultural beliefs, lobbyists, political parts and support every bit good as grounds based research. It is hence of import to guarantee they have adequate information from researches, prevalence of HIV and alternate solutions. The function of the media and other organisations can non be over emphatic. This policy proposes the debut of structured sex instruction with condom publicity in secondary schools across Nigeria It aims to cut down the prevalence of HIV/AIDS among in-school young persons Aims To better the cognition about HIV/AIDS amongst young person To raise the age of first sexual brush amongst in-school young person by 5 old ages in 10 old ages To promote rubber usage among in-school young person To increase the figure of in school young person seeking intervention and attention for other STIs by 20 % in 5 old ages To cut down teenage gestations by half in 5 old ages Resistance to this policy ‘s credence could be limited by ab initio influencing policy alteration in southern urban parts where it will be more acceptable and if successful, scaled up to other less urban countries utilizing traditional and spiritual leaders to act upon credence. A broad web and model of HIV/AIDS bar is soon on land in Nigeria, a assorted scanning attack will be ideal. A rational attack for explicating policies and go throughing the measure, which will be instantly diffused through the Ministry of Health to all schools An incremental attack by ab initio increasing the cognition of in-school young person on HIV/AIDS by presenting sex instruction into the school course of study, presenting text editions and stuffs that educate pupils on HIV/AIDS and subsequently up-scaling to include RH clinics to turn to early intervention and bar of STIs. Formation of in-school HIV nines and groups will supply a forum for pupils to aerate their positions on abstention, sexual exposure and bar patterns and eventually condom handiness and distribution. Cost will be reduced by utilizing bing resources and adult male power. Increased cognition of HIV/AIDS in the population with capacity edifice for instructors and in school young person will let for easy execution. A elaborate and careful pilot testing could be done in the relevant mark group to let for appropriate rating and alteration before broad spread execution. A underside up attack should besides be used to let for more engagement by implementers and uninterrupted rating and redefining of aims or schemes.EvaluationHIV bar intercessions are complex. There are legion intercessions and schemes to take from. The content and quality of intercessions may differ well from one another and intercessions may be implemented in different ways by different people. Specific intercessions may be interactive or even counter and yet most programmes will unite several intercession schemes, doing rating of the effects of specific intercessions or constituents within the programme bundle hard or impossible to extricate. ( UNAIDS, 2008 ) In measuring the effectivity of the policy, elaborate grounds on the existent procedure of bringing of the intercession that establishes the extent and quality of bringing will be gathered. Facility audit is besides of import to supply information on adequateness of substructure, equipment, proficient and operational guidelines. The success of the policy execution will besides be evaluated utilizing the five key United Nations General Assembly Special Session ( UNGASS ) ends. ( WHO Technical study series, 2006 ) Provide appropriate information to immature people and grounds of betterments in their resulting cognition Provide appropriate accomplishments developing to immature people and grounds of their ability to show these accomplishments, and utilize these accomplishments to diminish their hazard of going infected Supply appropriate skills-based preparation, equipment and supplies to implementers and grounds of this ensuing in increased bringing of effectual, high quality wellness services to immature people. Provide grounds of reduced exposure of HIV among immature people, such as alterations in the attitudes and behaviors of immature people Provide grounds of a decrease in HIV prevalence among immature people that can be attributed to the intercession Donabedian ‘s model for measuring health care conceptualizes â€Å" Inputs, Process and Outcome † . ( Kent Buse et Al, 2005 ) Table 2: Policy Implementation and EvaluationUndertaking IMPLEMENTATIONUndertaking EVALUATIONINPUT/RESOURCESACTIVITIES/INTERVENTION SERVICEEnd productOUTCOME/IMPACTMEASUREMENT METHOD/INDICATORSStaff Monitoring and rating preparation for plan directors and implementers Training of school nurses and instructors Training of spouses and stakeholders on young person and HIV Media preparation on Sexual activity instruction and Condom publicity Capacity edifice for implementers Change in supplier behavior in relation to school young person Change in supplier behavior in relation to describing systems Improvement in administrative and describing systems Experimental surveies Number of instructors and school nurses trained in supplying sexual instruction and wellness services to school young person Number of stakeholders trained on HIV and the young person Quality appraisal of describing systems Media support Awareness creative activity for rubber publicity to interrupt barriers Commission and air jangles on the impact of sex instruction on school young person. Media run aiming socio cultural issues disaggregated by age, sex and location. Media run on inter-generational sex Harmonization of stuff development, distribution and usage Increase consciousness on sex instruction and rubber rebranding Sexual activity instruction and sex literacy as a societal norm Condom usage as a societal norm Behavioural surveillance study Condom handiness and handiness Stigmatization around sex instruction and rubber usage Number of jangles aired on sex instruction and rubber usage among school young person Education Production and distribution of IEC Materials Production of text editions integrated with cognition of STI and HIV Development and version of course of study on sex instruction Sexual instruction Sessionss in schools Condom dialogue accomplishments developing for school young person Improve school young persons consciousness on HIV/AIDS Improve rubber negociating accomplishments among school young person Improve rubber usage among school young person Reduce STI incidence Reduce HIV morbidity and mortality Reduce teenage gestations and it ‘s complications Reduce maternal mortality associated with teenage gestations Annual National HI/AIDS sero-prevalence lookouts study among in school young person Prevalence of STI and HIV among school young person Number of teenage gestations and maternal deceases related to them No of rubber distributed No of school young person who used rubbers in their last sexual brush Facilities Handiness of friendly accessible service Centres for school young person within and outside the school Build effectual linkage/referral systems for STI direction in communities Establish regional offices through the Ministry of Education to supervise disposal and M & A ; E Increase entree to RH services Promote dealingss among assorted organisations involved Allow easy monitoring and rating of execution School young person will be able to entree RH services without stigmatisation Provide utile information on execution procedure and success Behavioural surveillance study No of young person accessing RH services before and after intercession No of RH services available to youth No of young person referred through linkage systems Research Population based study on Sexual activity instruction, rubber usage and publicity in school young person Increase cognition base on sex instruction and rubber scheduling Increase cognition on the young person ‘s sexual hazard behavior Making future sex instruction programming policies based on grounds based scientific research Experimental surveies Number of research proposals and surveies carried out on sex instruction, hazard behaviors, rubber scheduling and usage among school young person Community Mobilization Battle of FBOs, CSOs, community and spiritual groups and parents on HIV/AIDS cognition Skills and services community mobilisation for HIV Sensitization of community leaders against stigmatising or opposing sexual instruction among school young person Increase consciousness of FBOs, NGOs and parents on HIV and the young person Promote rubbers as a double method Rebrand rubber usage as a positive thing Engagement of policy execution at grass root degree Improve community consciousness and integrity in the battle against HIV/AIDS Enable societal and cultural credence about sex instruction Constitution of young person groups Experimental surveies Number of young person groups on HIV/AIDS advancing sex literacy and rubber usage Number of community stakeholders involved in young person groups Number of outreach events advancing sex instruction Advocacy/policy Recommending for policy reforms on socio-cultural and economic issues that promote HIV transmittal, stigma and favoritism among young person Increase consciousness of stakeholders on HIV and young person HIV and youth issues get on the policy docket Laws on HIV and young person, stigma and favoritism enacted Experimental surveies Nature and type of issues incorporated into the National Youth policy No of public hearings on the bill of exchange measure and Young person policyDecisionThe immature can non talk for themselves in doing lawful determinations that impact their ain lives. Their determinations are influenced by parents, the community, equal force per unit area, and their personal cognition. It is hence of import that the cognition they have is sufficient and diverse to enable them do informed determinations refering their sexual wellness. Surveies done have shown adequate grounds that sexual instruction addition in-school young person ‘s consciousness of HIV/AIDS and can act upon their attitude or do behaviour alteration. Health system research findings in the Nigeria will stay impotent unless translated into public wellness action through effectual public policy-making. ( Shamsuzzoha B Syed et al.,2008 ) Policy docket scene, preparation, execution and rating are all necessary phases in achieving policy alteration. In world, they all happen at the same time and can be revisited and changed while the procedure is ongoing. Stakeholder ‘s influence is really important in policy devising and acceptance. The media is a really powerful tool which should be used suitably. Policy execution should be done carefully without rigidness utilizing bottom up attacks. Evaluation is necessary in order to mensurate the success of the plan and larn more for future policy executions. Reducing HIV/AIDS prevalence amongst in-school young person goes a long manner in cut downing prevalence in the general population and promises a healthier brighter hereafter, free from HIV/AIDS.